State-of-the-art molecular genetic testing for the diagnosis of viral infections
DOI: 10.32364/2587-6821-2021-5-7-497-502
K.Sh. Arnaudova, A.L. Yasenyavskaya, G.A. Rostoshvili, M.A. Samotrueva, O.A. Bashkina
Astrakhan State Medical University, Astrakhan, Russian Federation
High contagiousness and rapid spread of viral infections highlight the importance of their timely clinical diagnosis. There is a current need to gain in-depth knowledge of viral agents’ origin, routes, and evolution to predict and prevent viral diseases. The introduction of advanced molecular genetic testing made this possible. Laboratories worldwide develop and manufacture urgently needed test kits for rapidly detecting infections since asymptomatic cases favor further dissemination of these diseases. Over the last year, the active development of diagnostic kits for COVID-19 contributed to the improvement of molecular genetic testing, particularly for mass and screening testing. RT-PCR is widely applied to detect viral RNA. Meanwhile, other tests for nucleic acids, e.g., isothermal amplification, microarray hybridization, amplicon metagenome sequencing, and CRISPR, are now introduced into daily practice.
Keywords: viruses, diagnostics, molecular genetic testing, po lymerase chain reaction, RNA.
For citation: Arnaudova K.Sh., Yasenyavskaya A.L., Rostoshvili G.A. et al. State-of-the-art molecular genetic testing for the diagnosis of viral infections. Russian Medical Inquiry. 2021;5(7):497–502 (in Russ.). DOI: 10.32364/2587-6821-2021-5-7-497-502.
References
1. Long C., Xu H., Shen Q. et al. Diagnosis of the Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): rRT-PCR or CT? Eur J Radiol. 2020;126;108961. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2020.108961.
2. Vogels C.B.F., Brito A.F., Wyllie A.L. et al. Analytical sensitivity and efficiency comparisons of SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR primer-probe sets. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(10):1299–1305. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-0761-6.
3. Tian B., Gao F., Fock J. et al. Homogeneous circle-to-circle amplification for real-time optomagnetic detection of SARS-CoV-2 RdRp coding sequence. Biosens Bioelectron. 2020;165;112356. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112356.
4. Ge C., Li M., Li M. et al. Au-decorated BN nanotube as a breathalyzer for potential medical applications. J Mol Liq. 2020;312;113454. DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113454.
5. Payne S. Family Coronaviridae. Viruses. 2017:149–158. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00017-9.
6. Longdon B., Brockhurst M.A., Russell C.A. et al. The evolution and genetics of virus host shifts. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10(11):e1004395. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004395.
7. Graham R.L., Baric R.S. Recombination, reservoirs, and the modular spike: mechanisms of coronavirus cross-species transmission. J Virol. 2010;84(7):3134–3146. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01394-09.
8. Lau S.K., Tsang A.K., Shakeel Ahmed S. et al. First genome sequences of buffalo coronavirus from water buffaloes in Bangladesh. New Microbes New Infect. 2016;11:54–56. DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2016.02.011.
9. Lau S.K., Woo P.C., Li K.S. et al. Discovery of a novel coronavirus, China Rattus coronavirus HKU24, from Norway rats supports the murine origin of Betacoronavirus 1 and has implications for the ancestor of Betacoronavirus lineage A. J Virol. 2015;89(6):3076–3092. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.02420-14.
10. Woo P.C., Lau S.K., Wernery U. et al. Novel betacoronavirus in dromedaries of the Middle East, 2013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20(4):560–572. DOI: 10.3201/eid2004.131769.
11. Lau S.K., Zhang L., Luk H.K.H. et al. Receptor Usage of a Novel Bat Lineage C Betacoronavirus Reveals Evolution of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus Spike Proteins for Human Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Binding. J Infect Dis. 2018;218(2):197–207. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy018.
12. Lau S.K., Poon R.W., Wong B.H. et al. Coexistence of different genotypes in the same bat and serological characterization of Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9 belonging to a novel Betacoronavirus subgroup. J Virol. 2010;84(21):11385–113894. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01121-10.
13. Lau S.K.P., Wong E.Y.M., Tsang C.C. et al. Discovery and Sequence Analysis of Four Deltacoronaviruses from Birds in the Middle East Reveal Interspecies Jumping with Recombination as a Potential Mechanism for Avian-to-Avian and Avian-to-Mammalian Transmission. J Virol. 2018;92(15):e00265-18. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.00265-18.
14. Woo P.C., Lau S.K., Tsang C.C. et al. Coronavirus HKU15 in respiratory tract of pigs and first discovery of coronavirus quasispecies in 5’-untranslated region. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017;6(6):e53. DOI: 10.1038/emi.2017.37.
15. Khan F., Ghaffar A., Khan N. et al. An Overview of Signal Processing Techniques for Remote Health Monitoring Using Impulse Radio UWB Transceiver. Sensors (Basel). 2020;20(9):2479. DOI: 10.3390/s20092479.
16. Bemtgen X., Krüger K., Supady A. et al. First Successful Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Induced Refractory Cardiogenic Plus Vasoplegic Shock by Combination of Percutaneous Ventricular Assist Device and Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Case Report. ASAIO J. 2020;66(6):607–609. DOI: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001178.
17. Lv D.F., Ying Q.M., Weng Y.S. et al. Dynamic change process of target genes by RT-PCR testing of SARS-Cov-2 during the course of a Coronavirus Disease 2019 patient. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;506:172–175. DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2020.03.032.
18. Xu Y.H., Dong J.H., An W.M. et al. Clinical and computed tomographic imaging features of novel coronavirus pneumonia caused by SARS-CoV-2. J Infect. 2020;80(4):394–400. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.017.
19. Seo G., Lee G., Kim M.J. et al. Rapid Detection of COVID-19 Causative Virus (SARS-CoV-2) in Human Nasopharyngeal Swab Specimens Using Field-Effect Transistor-Based Biosensor. ACS Nano. 2020;14(4):5135–5142. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c02823.
20. Vogels C.B.F., Brito A.F., Wyllie A.L. et al. Analytical sensitivity and efficiency comparisons of SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR primer-probe sets. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(10):1299–1305. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-0761-6.
21. Zhong Q., Li Z., Shen X. et al. CT imaging features of patients with different clinical types of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). 2020;49(1):198–202. DOI: 10.3785/j.issn.1008-9292.2020.03.05.
22. Pandey L.M. Design of engineered surfaces for prospective detection of SARS-CoV-2 using quartz crystal microbalance-based techniques. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2020;17(6):425–432. DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2020.1794831.
23. Bemtgen X., Krüger K., Supady A. et al. First Successful Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Induced Refractory Cardiogenic Plus Vasoplegic Shock by Combination of Percutaneous Ventricular Assist Device and Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Case Report. ASAIO J. 2020;66(6):607–609. DOI: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001178.
24. Falzone L., Musso N., Gattuso G. et al. Sensitivity assessment of droplet digital PCR for SARS-CoV-2 detection. Int J Mol Med. 2020;46(3):957–964. DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2020.4673.
25. Loforte A., Gliozzi G., Martin Suarez S. et al. Contributory Role of Positron Emission Tomography in a Left Ventricular Assist Device Recipient at the Time of COVID-19 Pandemic. ASAIO J. 2020;66(6):599–602. DOI: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001176.
26. Оперативные данные «стопкоронавирус.рф». URL: https://xn--80aesfpebagmfblc0a.xn--p1ai/ (Электронный ресурс.) (дата обращения: 27.01.2021). [Operational data of "stopkoronavirus.rf". (Electronic resource). URL: https://xn--80aesfpebagmfblc0a.xn--p1ai/ (access date: 27.01.2021) (in Russ.)].
27. Gao J., Tian Z., Yang X. Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends. 2020;14(1):72–73. DOI: 10.5582/bst.2020.01047.
28. Freire-Paspuel B., Vega-Mariño P., Velez A. et al. Analytical and clinical comparison of Viasure (CerTest Biotec) and 2019-nCoV CDC (IDT) RT-qPCR kits for SARS-CoV2 diagnosis. Virology. 2021;553:154–156. DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.10.010.
29. Pokhrel P., Hu C., Mao H. Detecting the Coronavirus (COVID-19). ACS Sens. 2020;5(8):2283–2296. DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01153.
30. Greiwe J., Nyenhuis S.M. Wearable Technology and How This Can Be Implemented into Clinical Practice. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2020;20(8):36. DOI: 10.1007/s11882-020-00927-3.
31. Hoffmann M., Kleine-Weber H., Schroeder S. et al. SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271–280. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052.
32. Zhu N., Zhang D., Wang W. et al. China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727–733. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
33. Pan A., Kraschel K.L. CRISPR diagnostics: Underappreciated uses in perinatology. Semin Perinatol. 2018;42(8):525–530. DOI: 10.1053/j.semperi.2018.09.016.
34. Kujawski S.A., Wong K.K., Collins J.P. COVID-19 Investigation Team. Clinical and virologic characteristics of the first 12 patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the United States. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):861–868. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-020-0877-5.
35. VanGuilder H.D., Vrana K.E., Freeman W.M. Twenty-five years of quantitative PCR for gene expression analysis. Biotechniques. 2008;44(5):619–626. DOI: 10.2144/000112776.
36. Venter M., Richter K. Towards effective diagnostic assays for COVID-19: a review. J Clin Pathol. 2020;73(7):370–377. DOI: 10.1136/jclinpath-2020-206685.
37. Shirato K. Detecting amplicons of loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Microbiol Immunol. 2019;63(10):407–412. DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12734.
38. Basu A., Zinger T., Inglima K. et al. Performance of Abbott ID Now COVID-19 Rapid Nucleic Acid Amplification Test Using Nasopharyngeal Swabs Transported in Viral Transport Media and Dry Nasal Swabs in a New York City Academic Institution. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(8):e01136-20. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01136-20.
39. Zhang Y.,Odiwuor N., Xiong J. et al. Rapid molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus RNA using colorimeteric LAMP. medRxiv. 2020. DOI: 10.1101/2020.02.26.20028373.
40. Gupta D., Bhattacharjee O., Mandal D. et al. CRISPR-Cas9 system: A new-fangled dawn in gene editing. Life Sci. 2019;232:116636. DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116636.
41. Joung J., Ladha A., Saito M. et al. Point-of-care testing for COVID-19 using SHERLOCK diagnostics. medRxiv. 2020; 8. DOI: 10.1101/2020.05.04.20091231.
42. Broughton J.P., Deng X., Yu G. et al. CRISPR-Cas12-based detection of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Biotechnol. 2020;38(7):870–874. DOI: 10.1038/s41587-020-0513-4.
43. Taleghani N., Taghipour F. Diagnosis of COVID-19 for controlling the pandemic: A review of the state-of-the-art. Biosens Bioelectron. 2021;174:112830. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112830.
44. Guo X., Geng P., Wang Q. et al. Development of a single nucleotide polymorphism DNA microarray for the detection and genotyping of the SARS coronavirus. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;24(10):1445–1454. DOI: 10.4014/jmb.1404.04024.
45. de Souza Luna L.K., Heiser V., Regamey N. et al. Generic detection of coronaviruses and differentiation at the prototype strain level by reverse transcription-PCR and nonfluorescent low-density microarray. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(3):1049–1052. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02426-06.
46. Hardick J., Metzgar D., Risen L. et al. Initial performance evaluation of a spotted array Mobile Analysis Platform (MAP) for the detection of influenza A/B, RSV, and MERS coronavirus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2018;91(3):245–247. DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2018.02.011.
47. Moore S. C., Penrice-Randal R., Alruwaili M. et al. Amplicon based MinION sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 and metagenomics characterisation of nasopharyngeal swabs from patients with COVID-19. MedRxiv. 2020. DOI: 10.1101/2020.03.05.20032011.
2. Vogels C.B.F., Brito A.F., Wyllie A.L. et al. Analytical sensitivity and efficiency comparisons of SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR primer-probe sets. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(10):1299–1305. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-0761-6.
3. Tian B., Gao F., Fock J. et al. Homogeneous circle-to-circle amplification for real-time optomagnetic detection of SARS-CoV-2 RdRp coding sequence. Biosens Bioelectron. 2020;165;112356. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112356.
4. Ge C., Li M., Li M. et al. Au-decorated BN nanotube as a breathalyzer for potential medical applications. J Mol Liq. 2020;312;113454. DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.113454.
5. Payne S. Family Coronaviridae. Viruses. 2017:149–158. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00017-9.
6. Longdon B., Brockhurst M.A., Russell C.A. et al. The evolution and genetics of virus host shifts. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10(11):e1004395. DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004395.
7. Graham R.L., Baric R.S. Recombination, reservoirs, and the modular spike: mechanisms of coronavirus cross-species transmission. J Virol. 2010;84(7):3134–3146. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01394-09.
8. Lau S.K., Tsang A.K., Shakeel Ahmed S. et al. First genome sequences of buffalo coronavirus from water buffaloes in Bangladesh. New Microbes New Infect. 2016;11:54–56. DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2016.02.011.
9. Lau S.K., Woo P.C., Li K.S. et al. Discovery of a novel coronavirus, China Rattus coronavirus HKU24, from Norway rats supports the murine origin of Betacoronavirus 1 and has implications for the ancestor of Betacoronavirus lineage A. J Virol. 2015;89(6):3076–3092. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.02420-14.
10. Woo P.C., Lau S.K., Wernery U. et al. Novel betacoronavirus in dromedaries of the Middle East, 2013. Emerg Infect Dis. 2014;20(4):560–572. DOI: 10.3201/eid2004.131769.
11. Lau S.K., Zhang L., Luk H.K.H. et al. Receptor Usage of a Novel Bat Lineage C Betacoronavirus Reveals Evolution of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus Spike Proteins for Human Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Binding. J Infect Dis. 2018;218(2):197–207. DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy018.
12. Lau S.K., Poon R.W., Wong B.H. et al. Coexistence of different genotypes in the same bat and serological characterization of Rousettus bat coronavirus HKU9 belonging to a novel Betacoronavirus subgroup. J Virol. 2010;84(21):11385–113894. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.01121-10.
13. Lau S.K.P., Wong E.Y.M., Tsang C.C. et al. Discovery and Sequence Analysis of Four Deltacoronaviruses from Birds in the Middle East Reveal Interspecies Jumping with Recombination as a Potential Mechanism for Avian-to-Avian and Avian-to-Mammalian Transmission. J Virol. 2018;92(15):e00265-18. DOI: 10.1128/JVI.00265-18.
14. Woo P.C., Lau S.K., Tsang C.C. et al. Coronavirus HKU15 in respiratory tract of pigs and first discovery of coronavirus quasispecies in 5’-untranslated region. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017;6(6):e53. DOI: 10.1038/emi.2017.37.
15. Khan F., Ghaffar A., Khan N. et al. An Overview of Signal Processing Techniques for Remote Health Monitoring Using Impulse Radio UWB Transceiver. Sensors (Basel). 2020;20(9):2479. DOI: 10.3390/s20092479.
16. Bemtgen X., Krüger K., Supady A. et al. First Successful Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Induced Refractory Cardiogenic Plus Vasoplegic Shock by Combination of Percutaneous Ventricular Assist Device and Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Case Report. ASAIO J. 2020;66(6):607–609. DOI: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001178.
17. Lv D.F., Ying Q.M., Weng Y.S. et al. Dynamic change process of target genes by RT-PCR testing of SARS-Cov-2 during the course of a Coronavirus Disease 2019 patient. Clin Chim Acta. 2020;506:172–175. DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2020.03.032.
18. Xu Y.H., Dong J.H., An W.M. et al. Clinical and computed tomographic imaging features of novel coronavirus pneumonia caused by SARS-CoV-2. J Infect. 2020;80(4):394–400. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.017.
19. Seo G., Lee G., Kim M.J. et al. Rapid Detection of COVID-19 Causative Virus (SARS-CoV-2) in Human Nasopharyngeal Swab Specimens Using Field-Effect Transistor-Based Biosensor. ACS Nano. 2020;14(4):5135–5142. DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c02823.
20. Vogels C.B.F., Brito A.F., Wyllie A.L. et al. Analytical sensitivity and efficiency comparisons of SARS-CoV-2 RT-qPCR primer-probe sets. Nat Microbiol. 2020;5(10):1299–1305. DOI: 10.1038/s41564-020-0761-6.
21. Zhong Q., Li Z., Shen X. et al. CT imaging features of patients with different clinical types of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). 2020;49(1):198–202. DOI: 10.3785/j.issn.1008-9292.2020.03.05.
22. Pandey L.M. Design of engineered surfaces for prospective detection of SARS-CoV-2 using quartz crystal microbalance-based techniques. Expert Rev Proteomics. 2020;17(6):425–432. DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2020.1794831.
23. Bemtgen X., Krüger K., Supady A. et al. First Successful Treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Induced Refractory Cardiogenic Plus Vasoplegic Shock by Combination of Percutaneous Ventricular Assist Device and Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Case Report. ASAIO J. 2020;66(6):607–609. DOI: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001178.
24. Falzone L., Musso N., Gattuso G. et al. Sensitivity assessment of droplet digital PCR for SARS-CoV-2 detection. Int J Mol Med. 2020;46(3):957–964. DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2020.4673.
25. Loforte A., Gliozzi G., Martin Suarez S. et al. Contributory Role of Positron Emission Tomography in a Left Ventricular Assist Device Recipient at the Time of COVID-19 Pandemic. ASAIO J. 2020;66(6):599–602. DOI: 10.1097/MAT.0000000000001176.
26. Оперативные данные «стопкоронавирус.рф». URL: https://xn--80aesfpebagmfblc0a.xn--p1ai/ (Электронный ресурс.) (дата обращения: 27.01.2021). [Operational data of "stopkoronavirus.rf". (Electronic resource). URL: https://xn--80aesfpebagmfblc0a.xn--p1ai/ (access date: 27.01.2021) (in Russ.)].
27. Gao J., Tian Z., Yang X. Breakthrough: Chloroquine phosphate has shown apparent efficacy in treatment of COVID-19 associated pneumonia in clinical studies. Biosci Trends. 2020;14(1):72–73. DOI: 10.5582/bst.2020.01047.
28. Freire-Paspuel B., Vega-Mariño P., Velez A. et al. Analytical and clinical comparison of Viasure (CerTest Biotec) and 2019-nCoV CDC (IDT) RT-qPCR kits for SARS-CoV2 diagnosis. Virology. 2021;553:154–156. DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2020.10.010.
29. Pokhrel P., Hu C., Mao H. Detecting the Coronavirus (COVID-19). ACS Sens. 2020;5(8):2283–2296. DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01153.
30. Greiwe J., Nyenhuis S.M. Wearable Technology and How This Can Be Implemented into Clinical Practice. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep. 2020;20(8):36. DOI: 10.1007/s11882-020-00927-3.
31. Hoffmann M., Kleine-Weber H., Schroeder S. et al. SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor. Cell. 2020;181(2):271–280. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.02.052.
32. Zhu N., Zhang D., Wang W. et al. China Novel Coronavirus Investigating and Research Team. A Novel Coronavirus from Patients with Pneumonia in China, 2019. N Engl J Med. 2020;382(8):727–733. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa2001017.
33. Pan A., Kraschel K.L. CRISPR diagnostics: Underappreciated uses in perinatology. Semin Perinatol. 2018;42(8):525–530. DOI: 10.1053/j.semperi.2018.09.016.
34. Kujawski S.A., Wong K.K., Collins J.P. COVID-19 Investigation Team. Clinical and virologic characteristics of the first 12 patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in the United States. Nat Med. 2020;26(6):861–868. DOI: 10.1038/s41591-020-0877-5.
35. VanGuilder H.D., Vrana K.E., Freeman W.M. Twenty-five years of quantitative PCR for gene expression analysis. Biotechniques. 2008;44(5):619–626. DOI: 10.2144/000112776.
36. Venter M., Richter K. Towards effective diagnostic assays for COVID-19: a review. J Clin Pathol. 2020;73(7):370–377. DOI: 10.1136/jclinpath-2020-206685.
37. Shirato K. Detecting amplicons of loop-mediated isothermal amplification. Microbiol Immunol. 2019;63(10):407–412. DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12734.
38. Basu A., Zinger T., Inglima K. et al. Performance of Abbott ID Now COVID-19 Rapid Nucleic Acid Amplification Test Using Nasopharyngeal Swabs Transported in Viral Transport Media and Dry Nasal Swabs in a New York City Academic Institution. J Clin Microbiol. 2020;58(8):e01136-20. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01136-20.
39. Zhang Y.,Odiwuor N., Xiong J. et al. Rapid molecular detection of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus RNA using colorimeteric LAMP. medRxiv. 2020. DOI: 10.1101/2020.02.26.20028373.
40. Gupta D., Bhattacharjee O., Mandal D. et al. CRISPR-Cas9 system: A new-fangled dawn in gene editing. Life Sci. 2019;232:116636. DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116636.
41. Joung J., Ladha A., Saito M. et al. Point-of-care testing for COVID-19 using SHERLOCK diagnostics. medRxiv. 2020; 8. DOI: 10.1101/2020.05.04.20091231.
42. Broughton J.P., Deng X., Yu G. et al. CRISPR-Cas12-based detection of SARS-CoV-2. Nat Biotechnol. 2020;38(7):870–874. DOI: 10.1038/s41587-020-0513-4.
43. Taleghani N., Taghipour F. Diagnosis of COVID-19 for controlling the pandemic: A review of the state-of-the-art. Biosens Bioelectron. 2021;174:112830. DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112830.
44. Guo X., Geng P., Wang Q. et al. Development of a single nucleotide polymorphism DNA microarray for the detection and genotyping of the SARS coronavirus. J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;24(10):1445–1454. DOI: 10.4014/jmb.1404.04024.
45. de Souza Luna L.K., Heiser V., Regamey N. et al. Generic detection of coronaviruses and differentiation at the prototype strain level by reverse transcription-PCR and nonfluorescent low-density microarray. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45(3):1049–1052. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.02426-06.
46. Hardick J., Metzgar D., Risen L. et al. Initial performance evaluation of a spotted array Mobile Analysis Platform (MAP) for the detection of influenza A/B, RSV, and MERS coronavirus. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2018;91(3):245–247. DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2018.02.011.
47. Moore S. C., Penrice-Randal R., Alruwaili M. et al. Amplicon based MinION sequencing of SARS-CoV-2 and metagenomics characterisation of nasopharyngeal swabs from patients with COVID-19. MedRxiv. 2020. DOI: 10.1101/2020.03.05.20032011.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons «Attribution» 4.0 License.
Previous article
Next article
