Tobacco smoking and community-acquired pneumonia
O.N. Titova1, O.A. Sukhovskaya1,2, V.D. Kulikov1
1Pavlov First Saint Petersburg State Medical University
2Saint Petersburg Research Institute of Phthisiopulmonology
Tobacco smoke exposure leads to changes in the bronchial mucosa epithelium, occurrence of an inflammatory reaction, decrease in the protective functions of the innate and adaptive immune response. Many studies have shown that tobacco smoking increases susceptibility to bacterial infections. The risks of developing pneumonia and its outcome are most often worsened in smoking patients. In particular, the risk of developing community-acquired pneumonia in smoking 20 or more cigarettes per day is 3.3 times higher than in non-smokers. In addition, tobacco use can contribute to the development of diseases that are also risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia and the fatal outcome by this disease, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, viral infections, cardiovascular diseases, periodontosis and etc. Smoking patients should be encouraged to quit smoking and, if necessary, to be prescribed appropriate treatment. The most effective treatment fo r nicotine dependence is a combination of cognitive-behavioural and drug therapy. A treatment trial of nicotine dependence in patients with pneumonia showed that the varenicline use and telephone counselling increased the chances of remaining non-smoking by 7.29 times and improved the life quality (questionnaire SF-36). It is necessary to begin treatment of nicotine dependence and provide assistance in quitting tobacco use at the first request for medical care.
Keywords: tobacco smoking, nicotine dependence, community-acquired pneumonia, risk factors, mortality.
For citation: Titova O.N., Sukhovskaya O.A., Kulikov V.D. Tobacco smoking and community-acquired pneumonia. RMJ. Medical Review. 2019;9(I):34-37.
References
1. Doll R., Peto R., Boreham J., Sutherland I. Mortality from cancer in relation to smoking: 50 years observations on British doctors. Br J Cancer. 2005;92(3):426–429. DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6602359.
2. Суховская О.А., Куликов В.Д. Курение: современное состояние проблемы в РФ. Астма и аллергия. 2016;(4):3–7. [Sukhovskaya O.A., Kulikov V.D. Smoking: the current state of the problem in the Russian Federation. Asthma and Allergies. 2016;(4):3–7 (in Russ.)].
3. Mehta H., Nazzal K., Sadikot R.T. Cigarette smoking and innate immunity. Inflamm Res. 2008;(57):497–503. DOI: 10.1007/s00011-008-8078-6.
4. Barnes P.J. Neutrophils find smoke attractive. Science. 2010;330:40–41. DOI: 10.1126/science.1196017.
5. Arnson Y., Shoenfeld Y., Amital H. Effects of tobacco smoke on inmunity, inflammation and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2010;(34):258–265. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2009.12.003.
6. Kohailan M., Alanazi M., Rouabhia M. et al. Effect of smoking on the genetic makeup of toll-like receptors 2 and 6. Onco Targets Ther. 2016;2(9):7187–7198. DOI 10.2147/OTT.S109650.
7. Semilali A., Witoled C., Alanazi M., Rouabhia M. Whole cigarette smoke increased the expression of TLRs, HBDs, and proinflammary cytokines by human gingival epithelial cells through different signaling pathways. PloS One. 2012;7(12): e52614. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052614.
8. Belhareth R., Mezouar S., Ben Amara A. et al. Cigarette smoke extract interferes with placenta macrophage function: A new mechanism to compromise placenta function? Reprod Toxicol. 2018;78:120–129. DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2018.04.009.
9. Hamer M., O’Donovan G., Stamatakis E. Lifestyle risk factors, obesity and infectious disease mortality in the general population: Linkage study of 97,844 adults from England and Scotland. Prev Med. 2019 Mar 4;123:65–70. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.002.
10. Zhang L., Zhang W., Xu.Y. et al. Effect of smoking on chronic rhinosinusitis complicated with lower respiratory tract disease. Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2018;32(23):1826–1828. DOI: 10.13201/j.issn.1001-1781.2018.23.014.
11. Almirall J., Blanquer J., Bello S. Community acquired pneumonia among smokers. Arch Bronconeumol. 2014;50(6):250–254. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2013.11.016.
12. Клинические рекомендации (проект). Внебольничная пневмония, 2018. (Электронный ресурс). URL: http://www.spulmo.ru/obrazovatelnye-resursy/federalnye-klinicheskie-rekomendatsii. Дата обращения: 25.04.2019. [Clinical recommendations (draft). Community-acquired pneumonia, 2018. (Electronic resource). URL: http://www.spulmo.ru/obrazovatelnye-resursy/federalnye-klinicheskie-rekomendatsii. Access date: 25.04.2019 (in Russ)].
13. Титова О.Н., Кузубова Н.А., Гембицкая Т.Е. и др. Внебольничная пневмония в Санкт-Петербурге: основные итоги и тенденции в 2009–2016 гг. Здравоохранение Российской Федерации. 2018;62(5):228–233. [Titova O.N., Kuzubova N.A., Gembitskaya T.E. et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in St. Petersburg: the main results and trends in 2009–2016. Zdravoochranenie Rossiiskoi Federacii. 2018;62(5):228–233 (in Russ.)].
14. Almirall J., Bolibar M., Serra-Prat J., Roig I. New evidence of risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2008;31:1274–1284. doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00095807.
15. Koul P.A., Chaudhari S., Chokhani R. et al. Pneumococcal disease burden from an Indian perspective: Need for its prevention in pulmonology practice. Lung India 2019;36(3):216–225. DOI: 10.4103/lungindia.lungindia_497_18.
16. Muthumbi E., Lowe B.S., Muyodi C. et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Kenia: a case-control study. Pneumonia (Nathan). 2017;9:17–21. DOI: 10.1186/s41479-017-0041-2.
17. Braeken D.C., Rohde G.G., Franssen F.M. et al. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease stratified by smoking status: a population-based cohort study in United Kingdom. Int J Chron Obsruct Pulmon. Dis. 2017;12:2425–2432. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S.138435.
18. Phipps J.C., Aronoff D.M., Curtis J.L. et al. Cigarette smoke exposure impairs pulmonary bacterial clearance and alveolar macrophage complement-mediated phagocytosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 2010;78:1214–1220. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00963-09.
19. Herr C., Beisswenger C., Hess C. et al. Suppression of pulmonary innate host defence in smokers. Thorax. 2009;64:144–149. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2008.102681.
20. Kilsgard O., Andersson P., Malmsten M. et al. Peptidylarginine deiminases present in the airways during tobacco smoking and inflammation can citrullinate the host defense peptide LL-37. Resulting in altered activities. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2012;46:240–248. DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2010-0500OC.
21. Gupta P.C., Pednekar M.S., Parkin D.M., Sankaranarayanan R. Tobacco associated mortality in Mumbai (Bombay) India. Results of the Bombay Cohort Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:1395–1402. DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyi196.
22. Inoue Y., Koizumi A., Wada Y. et al. Risk and protective factors related to mortality from pneumonia among middle aged and elderly community residents: the JACC Study. J Epidemiol. 2007;17(6):194–202. DOI:10.2188/jea.17.194.
23. Bello S., Menendez R., Antoni T. et al. Tobacco smoking increases thr risk for death from pneumococcfl pneumonia. Chest. 2014;146(4):1029–1037. DOI: 10.1378/chest.13-2853.
24. Kenagy E., Priest P.C., Cameron C.M. et al. Risk factors for Legionella longbeachae Legionnaires’ disease, New Zealand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23(7):1148–1154. DOI: 10.3201/eid2307.161429.
25. Liapikou A., Makrodimitri S., Deskata K. et al. The impact of smoking on community acquired pneumonia course and outcomes. Eur Resp J. 2016;48:596. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.congress-2016.PA596.
26. Katanoda K., Marugame T., Saika K. et al. Population attributable fraction of mortality associated with tobacco smoking in Japan: a pooled analysis of three large-scale cohort studies. J Epidemiol. 2008;18:251–264. DOI: 10.2188/jea.JE2007429.
27. Garcia-Vidal C., Ardanuy C., Tubau F. et al. Pneumococcal pneumonia presenting with septic shock: host- and pathogen related factors and outcomes. Thorax. 2010;65:77–81. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2009.12361243.
28. Суховская О.А., Козырев А.Г., Киселева Е.А. и др. Выявление ранних стадий заболеваний органов дыхания, ассоциированных с табакокурением. Тюменский медицинский журнал. 2008;2:3–6. [Sukhovskaya O.A., Kozurev A.G., Kiseleva E.A. et al. Detection of early stages of respiratory diseases associated with tobacco smoking. Tumenskiy medicinskiy zhurnal. 2008;2:3–6 (in Russ.)].
29. Pasquale C.B., Vietri J., Choate R. et al. Patient-Reported Consequences of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2019;6(2):240–245. DOI: 10.15326/jcopdf.6.2.2018.0144.
30. Lee R., Lee D., Mamidi I.S. et al. Higher Risk for Pneumonia, Septic Shock, and Blood Transfusions After Total Shoulder Arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2019;477(2):416–423. DOI: 10.1097/CORR.0000000000000531.
31. Bonnesen B., Baunbæk Egelund G., Vestergaard J.A. et al. Is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease a risk factor for death in patients with community acquired pneumonia? Infect Dis (Lond). 2019;51(5):340–347. DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2019.1565416.
32. Lin S.H., Perng D.W., Chen C.P. et al. Increased risk of community-acquired pneumonia in COPD patients with comorbid cardiovascular disease. Int. J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2016;11:3051–3058. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S115137.
33. Hackshaw A., Morris J.K., Boniface S. et al. Low cigarette consumption and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: meta-analysis of 141 cohort studies in 55 study reports. BMJ. 2018;360: j5855. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.j5855.
34. Feldman C., Anderson R. Cigarette smoking and mechanisms of susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract and other organ systems. J Infect. 2013;67(3):169–184. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.05.004.
35. Godoy P., Castilla J., Soldevila N. et al. Smoking may increase the risk of influenza hospitalization and reduce influenza vaccine effectiveness in the elderly. Eur J Public Health. 2018;28(1):150–155. DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/ckx130.
36. Duffney P.F., McCarthy C.E., Nogales A. et al. Cigarette smoke dampens antiviral signaling in small airway epithelial cells by disrupting TLR3 cleavage. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2018;314(3): L505–L513. DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00406.2017.
37. Mandell L.A., Wunderink R.G., Anzuelo A. et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America / American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:527–572. DOI: 10.1086/511159.
38. Pearson W.S., Dube S.R., Ford E.S., Mokdah A.H. Influenza and pneumococcal vaccination rates among smokers: data from the 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Prev Med. 2009;48:180–183. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.11.001.
39. Lahdentausta L., Paju S., Mäntylä P. et al. Smoking confounds the periodontal diagnostics using saliva biomarkers. J Periodontol. 2018;11:10. DOI: 10.1002/JPER.18-0545.
40. Tomar S.L., Asma S. Smoking-attributable periodontitis in the United States: findings from NHANES III: Nacional Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Periodontol. 2000;71:743–751. DOI: 10.1902/jop.2000.71.5.743.
41. Fernandez-Plata R., Olmedo-Torres D., Martinez-Briseno D. et al. Prevalence of severe disease and its association with respiratory disease in hospitalized adult patients in ateriary care center. Gac Med Mex. 2015;151(5):608–615. PMID 26526474.
42. Suma S., Naito M., Wakai K. et al. Tooth loss and pneumonia mortality: A cohort study of Japanese dentists. PLoS One. 2018;13(4): e0195813. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195813.
43. Титова О., Суховская О., Куликов В. Влияние низкоинтенсивного и эпизодического курения на здоровье. Врач. 2018;29(4):36–40. [Titova O., Sukhovskaya O., Kulikov V. Effect of low-intensity and episodic smoking on health. Doctor. 2018;29(4):36–40 (in Russ.)].
44. NcNeely E., Mordukhovich I., Staffa S. et al. Legacy health effects among never smokers exposed to occupational secondhand smoke. PLos One. 2019;14(4): e0215445. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215445.
45. Almirall J., Gonzalez C.A., Balanzó X., Bolibar I. Proportion of community-acquired pneumonia cases attributable to tobacco smoking. Chest. 1999;116:375–379. DOI: 10.1378/chest.116.2.375.
46. Nuorti J.P., Butler J.C., Farley M.M. et al. Active bacterial core surveillance team. Cigarette smoking and invasive pneumococcal disease. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:681–689. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200003093421002.
47. Суховская О.А., Смирнова М.А. Сочетанное применение никотинсодержащей жевательной резинки и когнитивно-поведенческой терапии при отказе от табакокурения. Профилактическая медицина. 2015;18(5):70–74. [Sukhovskaya O.A., Smirnova M.A. Concurrent use of nicotine-containing chewing gum and cognitive-behavioral therapy for smoking cessation. Profilakticheskaya Medicinf. 2015;18(5):70–74 (in Russ.)].
48. Politis A., Ioannidis V., Gourgoulianis K. et al. Effects of varenicline therapy in combination with advanced behavioral support on smoking cessation and quality of life in inpatients with acute exacerbation of COPD, bronchial asthma, or community-acquired pneumonia: A prospective, open-label, preference-based, 52-week, follow-up trial. Chron Respir Dis. 2018;15(2):146–156. DOI: 10.1177/1479972317740128.
2. Суховская О.А., Куликов В.Д. Курение: современное состояние проблемы в РФ. Астма и аллергия. 2016;(4):3–7. [Sukhovskaya O.A., Kulikov V.D. Smoking: the current state of the problem in the Russian Federation. Asthma and Allergies. 2016;(4):3–7 (in Russ.)].
3. Mehta H., Nazzal K., Sadikot R.T. Cigarette smoking and innate immunity. Inflamm Res. 2008;(57):497–503. DOI: 10.1007/s00011-008-8078-6.
4. Barnes P.J. Neutrophils find smoke attractive. Science. 2010;330:40–41. DOI: 10.1126/science.1196017.
5. Arnson Y., Shoenfeld Y., Amital H. Effects of tobacco smoke on inmunity, inflammation and autoimmunity. J Autoimmun. 2010;(34):258–265. DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2009.12.003.
6. Kohailan M., Alanazi M., Rouabhia M. et al. Effect of smoking on the genetic makeup of toll-like receptors 2 and 6. Onco Targets Ther. 2016;2(9):7187–7198. DOI 10.2147/OTT.S109650.
7. Semilali A., Witoled C., Alanazi M., Rouabhia M. Whole cigarette smoke increased the expression of TLRs, HBDs, and proinflammary cytokines by human gingival epithelial cells through different signaling pathways. PloS One. 2012;7(12): e52614. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0052614.
8. Belhareth R., Mezouar S., Ben Amara A. et al. Cigarette smoke extract interferes with placenta macrophage function: A new mechanism to compromise placenta function? Reprod Toxicol. 2018;78:120–129. DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2018.04.009.
9. Hamer M., O’Donovan G., Stamatakis E. Lifestyle risk factors, obesity and infectious disease mortality in the general population: Linkage study of 97,844 adults from England and Scotland. Prev Med. 2019 Mar 4;123:65–70. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.03.002.
10. Zhang L., Zhang W., Xu.Y. et al. Effect of smoking on chronic rhinosinusitis complicated with lower respiratory tract disease. Wai Ke Za Zhi. 2018;32(23):1826–1828. DOI: 10.13201/j.issn.1001-1781.2018.23.014.
11. Almirall J., Blanquer J., Bello S. Community acquired pneumonia among smokers. Arch Bronconeumol. 2014;50(6):250–254. DOI: 10.1016/j.arbres.2013.11.016.
12. Клинические рекомендации (проект). Внебольничная пневмония, 2018. (Электронный ресурс). URL: http://www.spulmo.ru/obrazovatelnye-resursy/federalnye-klinicheskie-rekomendatsii. Дата обращения: 25.04.2019. [Clinical recommendations (draft). Community-acquired pneumonia, 2018. (Electronic resource). URL: http://www.spulmo.ru/obrazovatelnye-resursy/federalnye-klinicheskie-rekomendatsii. Access date: 25.04.2019 (in Russ)].
13. Титова О.Н., Кузубова Н.А., Гембицкая Т.Е. и др. Внебольничная пневмония в Санкт-Петербурге: основные итоги и тенденции в 2009–2016 гг. Здравоохранение Российской Федерации. 2018;62(5):228–233. [Titova O.N., Kuzubova N.A., Gembitskaya T.E. et al. Community-acquired pneumonia in St. Petersburg: the main results and trends in 2009–2016. Zdravoochranenie Rossiiskoi Federacii. 2018;62(5):228–233 (in Russ.)].
14. Almirall J., Bolibar M., Serra-Prat J., Roig I. New evidence of risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia: a population-based study. Eur Respir J. 2008;31:1274–1284. doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00095807.
15. Koul P.A., Chaudhari S., Chokhani R. et al. Pneumococcal disease burden from an Indian perspective: Need for its prevention in pulmonology practice. Lung India 2019;36(3):216–225. DOI: 10.4103/lungindia.lungindia_497_18.
16. Muthumbi E., Lowe B.S., Muyodi C. et al. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Kenia: a case-control study. Pneumonia (Nathan). 2017;9:17–21. DOI: 10.1186/s41479-017-0041-2.
17. Braeken D.C., Rohde G.G., Franssen F.M. et al. Risk of community-acquired pneumonia in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease stratified by smoking status: a population-based cohort study in United Kingdom. Int J Chron Obsruct Pulmon. Dis. 2017;12:2425–2432. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S.138435.
18. Phipps J.C., Aronoff D.M., Curtis J.L. et al. Cigarette smoke exposure impairs pulmonary bacterial clearance and alveolar macrophage complement-mediated phagocytosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae. Infect Immun. 2010;78:1214–1220. DOI: 10.1128/IAI.00963-09.
19. Herr C., Beisswenger C., Hess C. et al. Suppression of pulmonary innate host defence in smokers. Thorax. 2009;64:144–149. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2008.102681.
20. Kilsgard O., Andersson P., Malmsten M. et al. Peptidylarginine deiminases present in the airways during tobacco smoking and inflammation can citrullinate the host defense peptide LL-37. Resulting in altered activities. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2012;46:240–248. DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2010-0500OC.
21. Gupta P.C., Pednekar M.S., Parkin D.M., Sankaranarayanan R. Tobacco associated mortality in Mumbai (Bombay) India. Results of the Bombay Cohort Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2005;34:1395–1402. DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyi196.
22. Inoue Y., Koizumi A., Wada Y. et al. Risk and protective factors related to mortality from pneumonia among middle aged and elderly community residents: the JACC Study. J Epidemiol. 2007;17(6):194–202. DOI:10.2188/jea.17.194.
23. Bello S., Menendez R., Antoni T. et al. Tobacco smoking increases thr risk for death from pneumococcfl pneumonia. Chest. 2014;146(4):1029–1037. DOI: 10.1378/chest.13-2853.
24. Kenagy E., Priest P.C., Cameron C.M. et al. Risk factors for Legionella longbeachae Legionnaires’ disease, New Zealand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2017;23(7):1148–1154. DOI: 10.3201/eid2307.161429.
25. Liapikou A., Makrodimitri S., Deskata K. et al. The impact of smoking on community acquired pneumonia course and outcomes. Eur Resp J. 2016;48:596. DOI: 10.1183/13993003.congress-2016.PA596.
26. Katanoda K., Marugame T., Saika K. et al. Population attributable fraction of mortality associated with tobacco smoking in Japan: a pooled analysis of three large-scale cohort studies. J Epidemiol. 2008;18:251–264. DOI: 10.2188/jea.JE2007429.
27. Garcia-Vidal C., Ardanuy C., Tubau F. et al. Pneumococcal pneumonia presenting with septic shock: host- and pathogen related factors and outcomes. Thorax. 2010;65:77–81. DOI: 10.1136/thx.2009.12361243.
28. Суховская О.А., Козырев А.Г., Киселева Е.А. и др. Выявление ранних стадий заболеваний органов дыхания, ассоциированных с табакокурением. Тюменский медицинский журнал. 2008;2:3–6. [Sukhovskaya O.A., Kozurev A.G., Kiseleva E.A. et al. Detection of early stages of respiratory diseases associated with tobacco smoking. Tumenskiy medicinskiy zhurnal. 2008;2:3–6 (in Russ.)].
29. Pasquale C.B., Vietri J., Choate R. et al. Patient-Reported Consequences of Community-Acquired Pneumonia in Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Chronic Obstr Pulm Dis. 2019;6(2):240–245. DOI: 10.15326/jcopdf.6.2.2018.0144.
30. Lee R., Lee D., Mamidi I.S. et al. Higher Risk for Pneumonia, Septic Shock, and Blood Transfusions After Total Shoulder Arthroplasty. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2019;477(2):416–423. DOI: 10.1097/CORR.0000000000000531.
31. Bonnesen B., Baunbæk Egelund G., Vestergaard J.A. et al. Is chronic obstructive pulmonary disease a risk factor for death in patients with community acquired pneumonia? Infect Dis (Lond). 2019;51(5):340–347. DOI: 10.1080/23744235.2019.1565416.
32. Lin S.H., Perng D.W., Chen C.P. et al. Increased risk of community-acquired pneumonia in COPD patients with comorbid cardiovascular disease. Int. J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis. 2016;11:3051–3058. DOI: 10.2147/COPD.S115137.
33. Hackshaw A., Morris J.K., Boniface S. et al. Low cigarette consumption and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke: meta-analysis of 141 cohort studies in 55 study reports. BMJ. 2018;360: j5855. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.j5855.
34. Feldman C., Anderson R. Cigarette smoking and mechanisms of susceptibility to infections of the respiratory tract and other organ systems. J Infect. 2013;67(3):169–184. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2013.05.004.
35. Godoy P., Castilla J., Soldevila N. et al. Smoking may increase the risk of influenza hospitalization and reduce influenza vaccine effectiveness in the elderly. Eur J Public Health. 2018;28(1):150–155. DOI: 10.1093/eurpub/ckx130.
36. Duffney P.F., McCarthy C.E., Nogales A. et al. Cigarette smoke dampens antiviral signaling in small airway epithelial cells by disrupting TLR3 cleavage. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2018;314(3): L505–L513. DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00406.2017.
37. Mandell L.A., Wunderink R.G., Anzuelo A. et al. Infectious Diseases Society of America / American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:527–572. DOI: 10.1086/511159.
38. Pearson W.S., Dube S.R., Ford E.S., Mokdah A.H. Influenza and pneumococcal vaccination rates among smokers: data from the 2006 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Prev Med. 2009;48:180–183. DOI: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.11.001.
39. Lahdentausta L., Paju S., Mäntylä P. et al. Smoking confounds the periodontal diagnostics using saliva biomarkers. J Periodontol. 2018;11:10. DOI: 10.1002/JPER.18-0545.
40. Tomar S.L., Asma S. Smoking-attributable periodontitis in the United States: findings from NHANES III: Nacional Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. J Periodontol. 2000;71:743–751. DOI: 10.1902/jop.2000.71.5.743.
41. Fernandez-Plata R., Olmedo-Torres D., Martinez-Briseno D. et al. Prevalence of severe disease and its association with respiratory disease in hospitalized adult patients in ateriary care center. Gac Med Mex. 2015;151(5):608–615. PMID 26526474.
42. Suma S., Naito M., Wakai K. et al. Tooth loss and pneumonia mortality: A cohort study of Japanese dentists. PLoS One. 2018;13(4): e0195813. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0195813.
43. Титова О., Суховская О., Куликов В. Влияние низкоинтенсивного и эпизодического курения на здоровье. Врач. 2018;29(4):36–40. [Titova O., Sukhovskaya O., Kulikov V. Effect of low-intensity and episodic smoking on health. Doctor. 2018;29(4):36–40 (in Russ.)].
44. NcNeely E., Mordukhovich I., Staffa S. et al. Legacy health effects among never smokers exposed to occupational secondhand smoke. PLos One. 2019;14(4): e0215445. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215445.
45. Almirall J., Gonzalez C.A., Balanzó X., Bolibar I. Proportion of community-acquired pneumonia cases attributable to tobacco smoking. Chest. 1999;116:375–379. DOI: 10.1378/chest.116.2.375.
46. Nuorti J.P., Butler J.C., Farley M.M. et al. Active bacterial core surveillance team. Cigarette smoking and invasive pneumococcal disease. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:681–689. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200003093421002.
47. Суховская О.А., Смирнова М.А. Сочетанное применение никотинсодержащей жевательной резинки и когнитивно-поведенческой терапии при отказе от табакокурения. Профилактическая медицина. 2015;18(5):70–74. [Sukhovskaya O.A., Smirnova M.A. Concurrent use of nicotine-containing chewing gum and cognitive-behavioral therapy for smoking cessation. Profilakticheskaya Medicinf. 2015;18(5):70–74 (in Russ.)].
48. Politis A., Ioannidis V., Gourgoulianis K. et al. Effects of varenicline therapy in combination with advanced behavioral support on smoking cessation and quality of life in inpatients with acute exacerbation of COPD, bronchial asthma, or community-acquired pneumonia: A prospective, open-label, preference-based, 52-week, follow-up trial. Chron Respir Dis. 2018;15(2):146–156. DOI: 10.1177/1479972317740128.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons «Attribution» 4.0 License.
Previous article
Next article
